Globalization and Perception on War

Globalization and International Organizations Assignment Submitted By A. S. M. Iqbal Bahar Rana. ID # 103-0007-085 MPPG Programme, North South University Date: 14. 11. 2011 Do you think the advent of information revolution has changed the way war is perceived by the West? If so, what are the implications of such changes for poorly-governed countries of the world? Introduction: The German philosopher Hegel held that revolutions are the locomotive of history. According to his theory, every social, political, and economic system builds up tensions and contradictions over time. Eventually these explode in revolution. One cannot create a revolution in the way that an architect designs a building. Nor is it possible to control revolutions like a conductor leads an orchestra. Revolutions are much too big and complex for that. Those who live in revolutionary times can only make a thousand small decisions and hope that they move history forward in the desired direction. Around the world today we see the growing sophistication and rapid international diffusion of powerful new information technologies, the mergers of huge communication empires, strategic alliances across borders, and the doubling of power and the halving of the price of computing every 18 months (Moore's Law). The Information Revolution, ethno-political conflicts, globalization — each of these three mega-trends is individually important for all nations' future; together, they are redefining the global context within which governments and citizens must make daily decisions in the years to come. Thus, their intersection should constitute a central concern of scholars, policy makers, and citizens. In an era of globalization, national security has a different meaning. Nation-states no longer have a monopoly on the means of coercion. Even if nuclear weapons had a deterrent value during the Cold War, today they have none as the causes of insecurity, more often than not, are economic collapse and internecine conflict, and not external aggression. The information age has revolutionized the instrument of soft power and the opportunities to apply them. The ability of a nation to project the appeal of its ideas, ideology, culture, economic model, and social and political institutions and to take advantage of its international business and telecommunications networks will leverage soft power. In simple terms, the information revolution is increasing inter-connectedness and escalating the pace of change in nearly every dimension of life. This, in turn, shapes the evolution of armed conflict. Whether in economics, politics, or war-fighting, those who are able to grasp the magnitude of this will be the best prepared to deal with it. The use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) in warfare scenarios has been of central interest to governments, intelligence agencies, computer scientists and security experts for the past two decades (Arquilla and Ronfeldt 1997; Campen and Dearth 1998; Singer 2009). . ICTs gave rise to the latest revolution in military affairs (RMA) by providing new tools and processes of waging war – like network-centric warfare (NCW), and integrated command, control, communications, computers, intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (C4ISR). This RMA concerns in the premise of military forces, as they have to deal with â€Å"the 5th dimension of warfare, information, in addition to land, sea, air and space†. Classical Perception of War: Clausewitz is under significant challenge. It is clearly alive and well in the military colleges of Western states but outside these corridors other philosophies are in the ascendancy. A debate continues to rage over the extent to which Clausewitzean thinking is still relevant to today’s wars. From today’s vantage point, several developments have eroded the appeal and power of the political philosophy of war. First, the concept of the battlefield, so central to the way in which Clausewitz understood warfare, has dissolved. The 9/11 attacks, for instance, demonstrated that today’s battlegrounds might be Western (or other) cities while the US-led ‘War on Terror’ – now rebranded as the ‘long war’ – conceives of the battlefield as literally spanning the entire globe. In the future, however, battles are unlikely to be confined to planet Earth as the US in particular will be forced to militarize space in an effort to protect the satellites upon which its communication and information systems depend (Hirst 2002). Second, as the speeches of both Osama bin Laden and US President George W. Bush make clear, the leadership cadres on both sides of the ‘War on Terror’ have often rejected political narratives of warfare. Instead, they have adopted eschatological philosophies in their respective rallying cries for a global jihad and a just war against evildoers where ideology played a significant role in waging war. A third problem for advocates of the political philosophy and one which Clausewitz obviously never encountered is war involving information technology. Information technology brings the Finally, when confronted by ‘revolutionary’ wars which cry out for counterrevolutionary responses, Clausewitz’s injunction to destroy the military forces of the adversary is problematic not just because such ‘military forces’ are often indistinguishable from the local populace but also because one can never be sure they have been eliminated ‘unless one is ready to destroy a large portion of the population’ (Rapoport 1968: 53; see also Chapter 26, this volume). As we have seen, it is fair to say, however, that the political philosophy has been the most prominent in the traditionally Anglo-American-dominated field of security studies (on the ethnocentric tendencies of security studies see Booth 1979, Barkawi and Laffey 2006). All that can be said in general terms is that whatever approach to understanding warfare one chooses to adopt will have consequences, leading the analysis in certain directions and forsaking others. Within International Relations and security studies warfare has commonly been defined in ways that highlight its cultural, legal and political dimensions. Information Revolution and information Warfare: ICTs are used in several combat activities, from cyber attacks to the deployment of robotic weapons and the management of communications among the fighting units. Such a wide spectrum of uses makes it difficult to identify the peculiarities of this phenomenon. Help in respect to this will come from considering in more detail the different uses of ICTs in warfare. An attack on the information system called smurf attack is an implementation of distributed denial of service (DDoS) attacks. A DDoS is a cyber attack whose aim is to disrupt the functionality of a computer, a network or a website. This form of attack was deployed in 2007 against institutional Estonian websites, and more recently similar attacks have been launched to block the Internet communication in Burma during the 2010 elections. The use of robotic weapons in the battlefield is another way to use ICTs in warfare. It is a growing phenomenon, coming to widespread public notice with US army, which deployed 150 robotic weapons in Iraq’s war in 2004, culminating in 12,000 robots by 2008. Nowadays, several armies around the world are developing and using tele-operated robotic weapons, they have been deployed in Iraq and Afghanistan, and more sophisticated machines are being used at the borders between Israel and Palestine in the so-called ‘automatic kill zone’. These robots are trusted to detect the presence of potential enemies and to mediate the action of the human soldiers and hence to fire on potential enemy’s targets when these are within the range patrolled by the robots. Several armies also invested their resources to deploy unmanned vehicles, like the MQ-1 predators, which have then been used to hit ground targets, and to develop unmanned combat air vehicles, which are designed to deliver weapons and can potentially act autonomously, like the EADS Barracuda, and the Northrop Grumman X-47B. One of the latest kinds of robotic weapon – SGR-A1 – has been deployed by South Korea to patrol the border with North Korea. This robot has low-light camera and pattern recognition software to distinguish humans from animals or other objects. It also has a color camera, which can locate a target up to 500 meters, and if necessary, can fire its built-in machine gun. Up until now, robotic weapons were tele-operated by militaries sitting miles away from the combat zone. Human were kept in the loop and were the ones who decided whether to shoot the target and to maneuver the robot on the battlefield. The case of SGR-A1 constitutes quite a novelty, as it has an automatic mode, in which it can open fire on the given target without waiting for the human soldier to validate the operation. Finally, the management of communication among the units of an army has been revolutionized radically by the use of ICTs. Communication is a very important aspect of warfare. It concerns the analysis of the enemy’s resources and strategy and the definition of an army’s own tactics on the battlefield. NCW and C4ISR represent a major revolution in this respect. An example of such revolution is the use of iPhone and Android devices. Today, the US army is testing the use of these devices to access intelligence data, display videos made by drones flying over the battlefields, constantly update maps and information on tactics and strategy, and, generally speaking, gather all the necessary information to overwhelm the enemy. Changing Nature of Conflict: States have been resilient in the face of technological change, and despite the increasingly rapid diffusion of information, states still shape the political space within which information flows (Keohane and Nye 1998; Herrera 2004). Yet state power has been diminished too. States have lost much of their control over monetary and fiscal policies, which are often dictated by global markets (Castells 1996, pp. 245, 254). The rapid movement of currency in and out of countries by currency speculators can extract a devastating cost on countries that do not have large currency reserves. States no longer monopolize scientific research. The Internet allows a global scientific community to exchange information on topics that can be easily exploited by terrorist organizations (Castells 1996, p. 125). The Internet has made it impossible for states, dictatorships as well as democracies, to monopolize the truth (Castells 1996, pp. 384, 486-487). Nor can they monopolize strategic information (Keohane and Nye 1998) – the information that confers great advantage only if competitors do not possess it – because states no longer control encryption technologies. Most critically, IT has made the most technologically advanced and powerful societies by traditional indices the most vulnerable to attack. A distinguishing hallmark of the information age is the â€Å"network,† which exploits the accessibility and availability of information, and computational and communicative speed, to organize and disseminate knowledge cheaply and efficiently (Harknett 2003). The strength of the network lies in its degree of connectivity. Connectivity can increase prosperity and military effectiveness, but it also creates vulnerabilities. Information-intensive military organizations are more vulnerable to information warfare because they are more information-dependent, while an adversary need not be information-dependent to disrupt the information lifeline of high-tech forces. Information-dependent societies are also more vulnerable to the infiltration of computer networks, databases, and the media, and to physical as well as cyber attacks on the very linkages upon which modern societies rely to function: communication, financial transaction, transportation, and energy resource networks. The same forces that have weakened states have empowered non-states. The information revolution has diffused and redistributed power to traditionally weaker actors. Terrorists have access to encryption technologies which increase their anonymity and make it difficult for states to disrupt and dismantle their operations. (Zanini and Edwards 2001, pp. 37-8) Global markets and the Internet make it possible to hire criminals, read about the design and dissemination of weapons of mass destruction, and coordinate international money laundering to finance nefarious activities (Kugler and Frost, eds. 001; Castells 2000, pp. 172, 180-182). Terrorists can now communicate with wider audiences and with each other over greater distances, recruit new members, and diffuse and control their operations more widely and from afar. Non-state actors also have increasing access to offensive information warfare capabilities because of their relative cheapness, accessibility and commercial origins (US GAO 1 996; Office of the Under Secretary for Defense for Acquisition and Technology 1996). Globalization, and the information technologies that undergird it, suggest that a small, well-organized group may be able to create the same havoc that was once the purview of states and large organizations with substantial amounts of resources. The availability off-the-shelf commercial technologies benefits smaller states and non-state actors, to be sure, but only the wealthiest and most powerful states will be able to leverage information technology to launch a â€Å"revolution in military affairs. The ability to gather, sort, process, transfer, and disseminate information over a wide geographic area to produce dominant battle space awareness will be a capability reserved for the most powerful (Keohane and Nye 1998). In this respect, information technology continues trends already underway in the evolution of combat that have enhanced the military effectiveness of states. IT makes conventional combat more accurate, thereby improving the efficiency of high explosive attacks. On the other hand, IT also continues trends in warfare that circumvent traditional military forces and which work in favor of weaker states and non-states. Like strategic bombing and counter-value nuclear targeting, efforts to destroy or punish an adversary by bypassing destruction of his armed forces and directly attacking his society, predate the information technology age. Techniques of information warfare provide attackers with a broader array of tools and an ability to target more precisely and by non-lethal means the lifelines upon which advanced societies rely: power grids, phone systems, transportation networks, and airplane guidance systems. Information is not only a means to boost the effectiveness of lethal technologies, but opens up the possibility of non-lethal attacks that can incapacitate, defeat, deter or coerce an adversary, attacks that can be launched by individuals and private groups in addition to professional militaries. Warfare is no longer an activity exclusively the province of the state. Information is something that states, organized for success in the industrial age, do not have a comparative advantage in exploiting. John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt argue that the information revolution is strengthening the network form of organization over hierarchical forms, that non-state actors can organize into networks more easily than traditional hierarchical state actors, and that the master of the network will gain major advantages over hierarchies because hierarchies have a difficult time fighting networks. (Arquilla and Ronfeldt 2001, pp. 1, 15. ) States are run by large hierarchical organizations with clearly delineated structures and functions. By contrast, a more efficient organizational structure for the knowledge economy is the network of operatives, or â€Å"knowledge workers† not bound by geographic location. This is precisely the type of organizational structure being adopted by terrorist groups as they adapt to the information age. There is evidence that adaptation is quicker in flat hierarchies or matrix organizations than it is in the steep pyramidal hierarchies that run the modern nation-state; that flatter networks have a much shorter learning curve than do hierarchically networked organizations (Areieli 2003). The higher the hierarchy, the faster it operates if it is doing something it has already foreseen and thus for which it is prepared. If, on the other hand, a scenario requires the development of new processes that were not foreseen, the flatter organization is better at learning. Matrix organizations are more creative and innovative. According to Castells, the performance of a network depends on two fundamental attributes: â€Å"its connectedness that is its structural ability to facilitate noise-free communication between its components; its onsistency, that is the extent to which there is sharing of interests between the network’s goals and the goals of its components† (Castells 1996, p. 171). On both criteria, large state bureaucracies suffer serious disadvantages. Informal war: Informal war is armed conflict where at least one of the antagonists is a non-state entity such as an insurgent army or ethnic militia. It is the descendent of what became known as low intens ity conflict in the 1980s. Like today, future informal war will be based on some combination of ethnicity, race, regionalism, economics, personality, and ideology. Often ambitious and unscrupulous leaders will use ethnicity, race, and religion to mobilize support for what is essentially a quest for personal power. The objectives in informal war may be autonomy, separation, outright control of the state, a change of policy, control of resources, or, â€Å"justice† as defined by those who use force. Informal war will grow from the culture of violence which has spread around the world in past decades, flowing from endemic conflict, crime, the drug trade, the proliferation of weapons, and the trivialization of violence through popular culture. In many parts of the world, violence has become routine. Whole generations now see it as normal. In this setting, informal war will remain common, in part because of the declining effectiveness of states. Traditionally, governments could preserve internal order by rewarding regions or groups of society which supported the government, punishing those which did not, and, with wise leadership, preempting conflict and violence through economic development. In a globalized economy, the ability of governments to control and manipulate the economy is diminished, thus taking away one of their prime tools for quelling dissent and rewarding support. In regions where the state was inherently weak, many nations have large areas of territory beyond the control of the government. And, as political, economic, and military factors constrain traditional cross border invasion, proxy aggression has become a more attractive strategic option. Regimes unwilling to suffer the sanctions and opprobrium that results from invading one’s neighbors find that supporting the enemies of one’s neighbors is often overlooked. This is not likely to change in coming decades. Finally, the combination of globalization and the Cold War have fueled the growth of an international arms market at the same time that the international drug traffic and the coalescence of international criminal networks have provided sources of income for insurgents, terrorists, and militias. With enough money, anyone can equip a powerful military force. With a willingness to use crime, nearly anyone can generate enough money. Informal war is not only more common than in the past, but also more strategically significant. This is true, in part, because of the rarity of formal war but also because of interconnectedness. What Martin Libicki calls â€Å"the globalization of perception†Ã¢â‚¬â€the ability of people to know what is happening everywhere—means that obscure conflicts can become headline news. There are no backwaters any more. As suffering is broadcast around the world, calls mount for intervention of one sort or the other. Groups engaged in informal war use personal and technological interconnectedness to publicize their cause, building bridges with a web of organizations and institutions. The Zapatista movement in southern Mexico is a model for this process. The Zapatistas, in conjunction with a plethora of left-leaning Latin Americanists and human rights organizations, used of the Internet to build international support with web pages housed on servers at places like the University of California, Swarthmore, and the University of Texas. This electronic coalition-building was so sophisticated that a group of researchers from the RAND Corporation labeled it â€Å"social netwar. Undoubtedly, more organizations will follow this path, blending the expertise of traditional political movements with the cutting-edge advertising and marketing techniques that the information revolution has spawned. A defining feature of the information revolution is that perception matters as much as tangible things. This will certainly hold for informal warfare. Future strategists will find that crafting an â€Å"image assessment† or â€Å"perception map† of a conflict will be a central part of their planning. In failed states, informal war may be symmetric as militias, brigand bands, and warlord armies fight each other. At other times, it may be asymmetric as state militaries, perhaps with outside assistance, fight against insurgents, militias, brigands, or warlord armies. Future insurgents would need to perform the same functions of defense, support, and the pursuit of victory, but will find new ways to do so. In terms of defense, dispersion is likely to be strategic as well as tactical. There will be few sanctuaries for insurgent headquarters in an era of global linkages, pervasive sensor webs, nd standoff weapons, so astute insurgents will spread their command and control apparatus around the world. Information technology will make this feasible. Right wing anti-government theorists in the United States have already developed a concept they call â€Å"leaderless resistance† in which disassociated terrorists work toward a common goal and become aware of each other’s action s through media publicity. The information revolution will provide the opportunity for â€Å"virtual leadership† of insurgencies which do not choose the anarchical path of â€Å"leaderless resistance. The top leadership might never be in the same physical location. The organization itself is likely to be highly decentralized with specialized nodes for key functions like combat operations, terrorism, fund raising, intelligence, and political warfare. In many cases, insurgent networks will themselves be part of a broader global network unified by opposition to the existing political and economic order. Informal war in the coming decades will not represent a total break with its current variants. It will still entail hands on combat, with noncombatants as pawns and victims. Insurgents, militias, and other organizations which use it will seek ways to raise the costs of conflict for state forces. Gray Area War: As the Cold War ended defense analysts like Max G. Manwaring noted the rising danger from â€Å"gray area phenomena† that combined elements of traditional war-fighting with those of organized crime. Gray area war is likely to increase in strategic significance in the early decades of the 21st century. To an extent, this is a return to historical normalcy after the abnormality of the Cold War. Today, gray area threats are increasing in strategic significance. Information technology, with its tendency to disperse information, shift advantages to flexible, networked organizations, and facilitate the creation of alliances or coalitions, has made gray area enemies more dangerous than in the past. For small or weak countries, the challenge is particularly dire. Not only are their security forces and intelligence communities less proficient, but the potential impact of gray area threats is amplified by the need to attract outside capital. In this era of globalization and interconnectedness, prosperity and stability within a state are contingent on capital inflows. Except in nations that possess one of the very rare high-payoff natural resources like petroleum, capital inflows require stability and security. In places like Colombia, South Africa, Central Asia, and the Caucuses, foreign investment is diminished by criminal activity and the insecurity it spawns. This makes gray area threats a serious security challenge. Gray area war involves an enemy or a network of enemies that seeks primarily profit, but which has political overtones and a substantially greater capability for strategic planning and the conduct of armed conflict than traditional criminal groups. Like future insurgents, future networked gray area enemies may have nodes that are purely political, some political elements that use informal war, and other components that are purely criminal. This greatly complicates the task of security forces that must deal with them. Because gray area enemies fall in between the realm of national security and law enforcement, the security forces that confront them must also be a â€Å"gray† blend of the military and the police. Like the military, security forces must have substantial fire power (both traditional and informational), and the ability to approach problems. But these security forces also must have characteristics of law enforcement, working within legal procedures and respecting legal rights. Even though the objective will be monetary rather than purely political, violence will be goal-oriented. Astrategic gray area war will consist primarily of turf battles between armed gangs or militias. It may be related to refugee movements, ethnic conflict, ecological degradation, or struggles for political power (as in Jamaica in the 1990s, where political parties used street gangs to augment their influence). When astrategic gray area war is linked to struggles for political power, the armed forces (such as they are) will be serving as mercenaries only partially controlled by their paymasters, rather than armed units under the actual command of political authorities. Strategic Information warfare: Formal, informal, and gray area war are all logical extensions of existing types. Technology, though, could force or allow more radical change in the conduct of armed conflict. For instance, information may become an actual weapon rather than simply a tool that supports traditional kinetic weapons. Future war may see attacks via computer viruses, worms, logic bombs, and trojan horses rather than bullets, bombs, and missiles. This is simply the latest version of an idea with recent antecedents in military history. Today strategic information warfare remains simply a concept or theory. The technology to wage it does not exist. Even if it did, strategists cannot be certain strategic information warfare would have the intended psychological effect. Would the destruction of a state’s infrastructure truly cause psychological collapse? Would the failure of banking, commercial, and transportation systems crush the will of a people or steel it? But until infrastructure warfare is proven ineffective, states and non-state actors which have the capacity to attempt it probably will, doing so because it appears potentially effective and less risky than other forms of armed conflict. Future infrastructure war could take two forms. In one version, strategic information attacks would be used to prepare for or support conventional military operations to weaken an enemy’s ability to mobilize or deploy force. The second possible form would be â€Å"stand alone† strategic information warfare. This might take the form of a sustained campaign designed for decisive victory or, more likely, as a series of raids designed to punish or coerce an enemy But should cyber-attacks, whether as part of strategic information warfare or as terrorism, become common, the traditional advantage large and rich states hold in armed conflict might erode. Cyber-attacks require much less expensive equipment than traditional ones. The necessary skills exist in the civilian information technology world. One of the things that made nation-states the most effective organizations for waging industrial age war was the expense of troops, equipment and supplies. Conventional industrial-age war was expensive and wasteful. Only organizations that could mobilize large amounts of money flesh, and material could succeed at it. But if it becomes possible to wage war using a handful of computers with internet connections, a vast array of organizations may choose to join the fray. Non-state organizations could be as effective as states. Private entities might be able to match state armed forces. While substantial movement is underway on the defense of national information infrastructure, offensive information warfare is more controversial. Following the 1999 air campaign against Serbia, there were reports that the United States had used offensive information warfare and thus â€Å"triggered a super-weapon that catapulted the country into a military era that could forever alter the ways of war and the march of history. According to this story, the U. S. military targeted Serbia’s command and control network and telephone system. The Future Battlefield: The information revolution is transforming warfare. No longer will massive dug-in Armies, armadas and Air Forces fight bloody attritional battles. Instead, small highly mobile forces, armed with real time information from satellites and terrestrially deployed battlefield sensors, will strike with lighteni ng speed at unexpected locations. On the battlefield of the future, enemy forces will be, located, tracked and targetted almost instantaneously through the use of: * Sensors and their fusion with a view to presenting an integrated highly reliable intelligence picture in real time. * Surveillance devices that unceasingly seek and shadow the enemy. * Data-links and computer-generated battle picture, task tables and â€Å"maps that change scale and overlay differing types of information in response to voice requests. † * Automated fire control, with first round kill probabilities approaching near certainty. Simulation, visualization and virtually in planning, and testing concepts and weapon effectiveness. This would balance out the need for large forces to overwhelm the opponent physically. Control function will be decentralized and shared at all levels of command. Combat will be in tandem to intelligence gathering. Non-lethal, soft-kill electronic weapons will assume as much importance as highly lethal, hard-kil l weapons. Intelligent command posts and paperless headquarters will be the form. A Commander will be of a different breed-priding more in his lap-top than his baton. He will be his own staff officer. Changing Perception of War and its implications on poorly governed country: The idea that weak states can compromise security — most obviously by providing havens for terrorists but also by incubating organized crime, spurring waves of migrants, and undermining global efforts to control environmental threats and disease — is no longer much contested. –Washington Post, June 9. 2004 A majority of states in the contemporary security environment can be classified as weak. These states exhibit a limited ability to control their own territories because, in part, they do not have a monopoly on the use of force within their borders. They also struggle to provide security or deliver major services to large segments of their populations. These vulnerabilities generate security predicaments that propel weak regimes—both democratic and authoritarian—to act in opportunistic ways. Because they lack conventional capabilities, out of necessity, weak states will have to be opportunistic in their use of the limited instruments they have available for security and survival. The threat of information warfare should be understood within a broad vision of global power that is based on an up-dated version of Mao Zedong’s theory of the ‘Three Worlds’. Just as Mao believed that the world was divided into three tiers of states, with the superpowers at the top, the developed states in the middle and the developing states at the bottom, in the information age is also supposed to be three types of state. At the top of the pile is the ‘information hegemony state’, asserting its control by dominating the telecommunications infrastructure, software development, and by reaping profits from the use of information and the Internet. After this comes the ‘information sovereign state’, exemplified by those European states that have accumulated sufficient know-how to exert independent control over their information resources and derive profits from them, and to protect themselves from information hegemony. At the bottom of the pile are the ‘information colonial and semi-colonial states’, which have no choice but to accept the information that is forced on them by other states. They are thus left vulnerable to exploitation because they lack the means to protect themselves from hegemonic power. In recent years, the nature of conflict has changed. Through asymmetric warfare radical groups and weak state actors are using unexpected means to deal stunning blows to more powerful opponents in the West. From terrorism to information warfare, the Wests air power, sea power and land power are open to attack from clever, but much weaker, enemies. The significance of asymmetric warfare, in both civilian and military realms become such an important subject for study to provide answers to key questions, such as how weaker opponents apply asymmetric techniques against the Western world, and shows how the West military superiority can be seriously undermined by asymmetric threats. Conclusion: It is said that nothing is permanent except change. This is particularly true in the information age. It is important to understand the nature of the new world information order in order to be effective in foreign policy initiatives and to conduct the international relations. The information revolution throws up various contradictory phenomena. It includes the strengthening of the forces of anarchy and control. The revolution empowers individuals and elites. It breaks down hierarchies and creates new power structures. It offers more choices and too many choices, greater insight and more fog. It reduces the risk to soldiers in warfare and vastly increases the cost of conflict. It can lead to supremacy of the possessors of information technologies while it leads to vulnerabilities to the same possessors from weaker nations. It cedes some state authority to markets, to transnational entities and to non-state actors and as a result produces political forces calling for the strengthening of the state. However, a mere look at some of the manifestations of the arrival of information technology in international relations, clearly brings out how the nature and exercise of power have been permanently altered. Benjamin Barber describes a world that is both coming together and falling apart in his book Jihad Against McWorld. He describes a world where the nation state is losing its influence and where the world is returning to tribalism, regionalism, and the ethnocentric warfare that characterized much of the earlier human history. This problem is most apparent in the developing world where we continue to see the spread of disease, continuing humanitarian crisis, political and economic instability, and ethnic, tribal, civil, and drug related war. There are several themes that are consistent across these global futures. The first is conflict. The negative effects of globalization will continue to promote regionalism, tribalism, and conflict in the developing world. Secondly, nations with uncontrollable population growth, a scarcity of natural resources, and poor government systems will fail to benefit from globalization regardless of its effects on the rest of the world. Thirdly, technology will continue to be exploited to benefit developed nations and illicit criminal/terrorist networks, and will have little affect on the developing world. In all scenarios the power of the state will weaken and the power of the non-state networked actor will continue to expand with the help of the tools of globalization. References: Paul D. Williams. (2008). War. In: Paul D. Williams Security Studies: An Introduction. New York: Routledge. p151-p171. Akshay Joshi. (2010). The Information Revolution and National Power:Political Aspects-II. Available: www. idsa. org. Last accessed 13rd November 2011. Alvin and Heidi Toffler, War and Anti-War: Survival at the Dawn of the 21st Century, Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1993. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr. , â€Å"Power and Interdependence in the Information Age,† Foreign Affairs, Vol. 77, No. 5, September/October 1998. Steven Metz. (2010). ARMED CONFLICT IN THE 21st CENTURY:. Strategic Studies Institute. 01 (1), 65-119. Arquilla, J. (1998). Can information warfare ever be just? Ethics and Information Technology, 1(3), 203-212. Floridi, L. (2009). The information Society and Its Philosophy. The Information Society, 25(3), 153-158. Steven, Doglous, 2002. Information Warfare: a Philosophical Perspective. 1. London: University of Hertfordshire. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Jr.. (1998). Power and Interdependence in the Information Age. Foreign Affairs. v. 77 (5), 1-10 David J. Rothkopf, â€Å"Cyberpolitik: The Changing Nature of Power in the Information Age†, Journal of International Affairs, Spring 1998, p. 27. Akshay Joshi, â€Å"The Information Revolution and National Power: Political Aspects-I†, Strategic Analysis, August 1999. Jessica Mathews, â€Å"Powershift†, Foreign Affairs, January/February 1997, pp. 50-55. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, edited and translated by Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976). The seminal discussion of the political philosophy of war. Emily O. Goldman and Leo J. Blanken, 2011, THE ECONOMIC FOUNDATIONS OF MILITARY POWER, California, University of California-Davis

Global Warming And Its Many Ramifications Essay

The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (U. S. EPA) supports all ordinances involving environmental protection and the abatement of natural resources degradation. These laws aim to restrict people from abusing the environment and destroying the natural habitats of numerous species. The CATO Institute in Washington believes that the government is not doing enough in terms of environmental protection. The institute emphasizes that government intervention needs to exert more effort in pursuing environmental preservation. The government is essential in pursuing this goal since this endeavor requires a huge amount of monetary and human resources and may not be achieved by a small number of people only (439-440). With the population continually increasing, natural resources are quickly dwindling, and with the loss of natural habitat, the flora and fauna also perish. Currently, the government pursues strategies that aim to protect the plants and animals affected by heightened human development. Better laws and ordinances need to be passed for the government to effectively preserve the ecosystem. If not, the world risks the possibility of humans satisfying only their own needs and satisfaction, without thinking of the long-term effects of development (U. S. EPA) Crucial Environmental Issues The emergence of numerous environmental issues, including the extinction of several plants and animals as well as changes in weather patterns, caused the government to implement restrictions on the activities of man affecting the environment. However, despite the efforts on the part of the government, environmental problems still occur. According to the U. S. EPA, fragmented tactics are not expected to be effective in protecting the environment as only the obvious problems are being undertaken, while the complex and less obvious environmental issues still remain. The U. S. EPA believes that it is important for the government to change the fundamentals of environmental policies. More restrictions need to be incorporated whenever development is envisioned. This is because with the current rate of development, plants and animals are in danger of not continuing to live in their natural habitats. Population explosion depletes the natural resources, which include plants and animals, which humans consume for their survival. In addition, human settlements also destroy the natural habitats of numerous species. Howard M. Singletary, Director of Plant Industry of the North Carolina Department of Agriculture, believes that biological diversity is essential in environmental protection (Evaluate the Social). Conserving biological diversity involves the protection of the entire ecosystem. Humans may see themselves as important or more important than the plants and animals that get destroyed as a result of increased population, but it should be noted that the environmental issues that man is facing at the present time are due to the absence of preventive planning. The short-term economic and monetary gains have frequently been treated as more important than the ecosystem. Yet, the destruction of plants and animals as well as their habitat contribute much in global warming and extreme weather situations. (Evaluate the Social). Humanity needs to see the impact of overdevelopment. People also need to realize that they need to invest and sacrifice certain conveniences and luxuries in order to achieve long-term environmental goals. The scientific community and several advocacy groups are supporting government efforts to preserve the environment. The global movement is for the greater good and is based on the fact the earth and everything in it is not owned by a single individual, group or corporation. The scale of the human economy is now such that the wilderness areas that sustain much of the world’s remaining biological diversity are shrinking fast. The rates of wildlife habitat takeover and of species extinctions are the fastest they have ever been in recorded history, and they are accelerating. Tropical forests, the world’s richest species habitats, have already been 55 percent destroyed, and the current rate exceeds 168,000 square kilometers per year. (Evaluate the Social). Stabilizing populations Stabilizing population is more important in industrial countries than in developing countries, since the former overconsume and hence overpollute and are thereby responsible for the greatest increase in the impact of human activities on the already overtaxed environment. The richest 20 percent of the world consume over 70 percent of the world’s commercial energy. Thirteen countries have already reached a fertility rate required in order to achieve zero population growth, so it is not utopian to expect others to follow. The population growth-rate of developing countries of course must also be reduced dramatically. Their population is now 77 percent of the world’s total, and they are responsible for 90 percent of the world’s annual population growth. (Evaluate the Social). The poor must be helped and will justifiably demand to reach at least minimally acceptable living standards by obtaining access to the remaining natural resource base. When industrial nations switch from input growth to qualitative development, more resources and environmental functions will be available for the poor in the South. Scientists observe that as the planet warms up, a great deal of ice and snow near the poles will probably start to melt. That will expose dark tundra and dark seas. That will warm things up – like painting a white roof black. The darker the terrain gets, the warmer those parts of the world will get. More snow will melt there, making the terrain even hotter. All these explanations fill more than thirty pages of rather small print in the Philosophical Magazines, and every one of the calculations had to be solved by hand. To make a greenhouse forecast, experts now build what amounts to a working scales model of the Earth inside a supercomputer. They start with a blank globe, divided into a grid like the grid of latitude and longitude. Typically each box in the grid covers several hundred miles on a side. These boxes are stacked from the surface of the planet high into the atmosphere – a dozen layers of giant boxes of air. Public concern over environmental policy was minimal until the end of the nineteenth century. As the United States expanded westward, the horizon seemed to present an unlimited supply of land, water, mineral deposits and timber. Farming techniques reflected little concern for minimizing soil depletion. Forests were cleared without concern for reforestation or the devastation of soil erosion. Minerals were mined and metals smelted without concern for their effects on fresh-water supplies; when contamination did result, it seemed a minor problem, because alternative sources of water seemed endless. (Royan, 2001). Despite a history of conservation policies, fundamental concerns over environmental protection were still absent from the policy agenda as late as the 1950s. The publication of Silent Spring in 1962 drew attention to the dangers of pesticides such as DDT, in the food chain. The sense of social responsibility that emerged in the 1960s also moved environmental policy from the background to the forefront of the policy agenda. Energy made it to the headlines once again in the year 2000; a shocking power crisis hit the state of California (Royan, 2001). Companies had realized once more that the horrors brought about by serious energy problems over the past three decades had not gone away. The California electricity crisis could potentially fan out towards other states; not only impact would it impact the profitability of a company, but could certainly put many out of business. As the new century fast approaches, the world has slowly realized the synergy between energy conservation and global economic competitiveness. Energy conservation entails the elimination of wastes through the improvement of industrial facilities and processes. Energy conservation also implies environment preservation through pollution prevention, and mitigating the trends toward global warming. Global competitiveness goes hand in hand with energy conservation, and many industrial firms from all over the world have realized that. Worldwide energy consumption in recent years has continued to escalate not only in developed countries but also in developing countries, primarily as a result of rapid industrialization and improvement in the standard of living. In a recent survey conducted by the Association of Energy Engineers, about 22 percent among those surveyed claimed to have reduced accumulated costs by $5 million or more by implementing energy conservation strategies (Cornforth, 1992). The potential for additional savings is still great. Thirty-six percent among those surveyed indicated that further savings that amount to over 10 percent are possible. Thus, investment in protocols that promote energy conservation has proven to be effective in saving costs by reducing waste materials resulting from industrial processes. As the next century approaches, the economic world has gradually come to realize that energy conservation offers the most profitable competitive advantage. Marked improvements in the efficiency of industrial processes or facilities to save fuel consumption reduce wastage. HiTAC has been a significant energy conservation development in recent years, and is now applied to industrial furnaces in many factories worldwide. A positive consequence of saving energy is minimizing greenhouse gas emissions that cause global warming. Because of the increased efficiency in combustion using HiTAC, nitrogen oxide and carbon dioxide-byproducts of incomplete burning, are reduced. Therefore, HiTAC saves on operational costs by making fuel consumption more efficient; and consequently, efficient fuel consumption minimizes waste products, among which are greenhouse gases that trigger global warming. (Hotel & Sarofim, 1967). Major Changes Taking Place in the US Population and Projected Problems Due to the Climate Changes The US is said to have the highest population of the developed nations, and one of the highest population growth rates at one percent, equivalent to 2. 5 million new Americans every year (Haub). Three national population trends that have been identified in a recent US census are changes in geographic distribution, changes in ethnic composition, and the effect of immigration on population (Haub). With regard to the changing geographic distribution of the population, the population is said to be shifting from the Northeast and Midwest to the South and West, both because of internal migration and immigration from other countries (Haub). With regard to ethic composition, while ethnic minorities are said to comprise 25 percent of the population currently, that percentage will increase to 50 percent in 50 years, with Asians rising in numbers from 7. 1 to 40 million by 2050, and Hispanics rising in numbers to 90 million in 2050, constituting 22 percent of the population (Haub). Immigration, on the other hand, presently accounts for a third of the population increase yearly, and is expected to be a major contributor to population growth in the future (Haub). It naturally follows that the South and West will have to deal with the attendant problems of the shifting geographic distribution in its favor, while the change in ethnic composition can be predicted to contribute its own set of problems. Problems Causing the Decline in the Quality of Life in Cities, Possible Solutions It is said that more than a billion urban dwellers, out of a total of three billion, are located in slum areas, with half living in Asia (Whelan). This is indicative of the mammoth problems of governments with regard to the provision for food (Sustainable Development Networking Program), opportunities for employment, environmental degradation, sanitation, and general quality of living in cities. Another problem causing the decline in quality of life is said to be urban sprawl, whose effects range from over-congestion to pollution (Goodwin). In the US, the states that are the destination of internal and external migration and immigration in the ongoing shift in geographic distribution of the population that will have to deal with these issues. Proposed solutions include the revision of federal laws to limit immigration, the creation of boundaries that will redirect urban growth to places where urban services can be provided, and tighter control on allowable density and housing (Goodwin). There are many environmentalists like Senator Hillary who had been bold about her support on the Supreme Court’s Global Warming Decision. She states that the scientific consensus is that global warming poses a serious threat to human activities (Statement of Senator Hillary Clinton on the Supreme Court†¦2007, par 1). She challenges President Bush to address this pressing global environmental threat as soon as possible. Issues on the Ozone In the discussions on the ozone hole, it is but apt to provide a brief explanation on what exactly is the ozone and how it is formed. The ozone, according to the Centre for Atmospheric Science, â€Å"forms a layer in the stratosphere, thinnest in the tropics (around the equator) and denser towards the poles†. More specifically, â€Å"[O]zone is a toxic, strong reactive compound consisting of three oxygen atoms† (Francois). As explained by the Centre for Atmospheric Science, the ozone is formed â€Å"when ultraviolet [radiation coming from the sun], strikes the stratosphere, dissociating (or splitting) oxygen molecules to atomic oxygen†¦[that] quickly combines with further oxygen molecules to form ozone† More commonly, the ozone is known as the layer that protects human beings and other living things from the harmful rays of the sun, more specifically, the ultraviolet rays-shielding us from being stricken by skin cancer. This common conception of the ozone layer, which provides a good notion of what ozone is, is just one side of the coin. Scientists refer to this more commonly know ozone as the stratospheric ozone (Centre for Atmospheric Science). On the other side of the coin is the tropospheric or the ground level ozone, which is considered as a major health hazard, is a â€Å"major constituent of photochemical smog† (Centre for Atmospheric Science). It is referred to as a pollutant because of its being lethal if inhaled (Newman). Ozone Facts According to the National Resources Defense Council (NRDC), the story of the ozone hole has its roots from the chlorofluorocarbons or CFC’s, â€Å"a family of most commonly used industrial compounds†. CFC’s was invented by Thomas Midgley in 1928 which later on was called as a â€Å"miracle compound† due to its proven useful for man’s convenience (NRDC). Since then, it was effectively â€Å"used in refrigeration systems, air conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in the production of some types of packaging† (Francois). However, decades after the â€Å"miracle compound† was invented and used in many industries and households as effective refrigerants, it was found out that it had caused a serious damage to the environment, more particularly to the ozone layer. It took American scientists Mario Molina and Sherwood Rowland to prove that the â€Å"miracle compound† turned out to be damaging to the environment as they hypothesized in 1974 that CFC’s â€Å"possibly played an active role in the depletion of the ozone layer† (NRDC). This announcement had sparked heated debates not just among scientists but also among policymakers, environmentalists and industry players on the â€Å"whys and wherefores of ozone depletion† (NRDC). It was explained by Newman that CFC’s became harmful to the ozone because of its chlorine make-up and â€Å"it turn[ed] out that CFC’s are an excellent way of introducing chlorine into the ozone layer†. This happens as the ultraviolet radiation coming from the sun strikes CFC’s that go up into the altitude of the ozone layer, this UV radiation breaks down CFC’s and frees chlorine (Newman). After chlorine has been freed, this â€Å"has the potential to destroy large amount of ozone† (Newman). Francois also provides connection of the thinning of the ozone layer to the introduction of large amount of chlorine in the atmosphere through the use of CFC’s. The Centre for Atmospheric Science stated that â€Å"Evidence that human activities affect the ozone layer has been building up over the last 20 years, ever since scientists first suggested that the release of CFC’s into the atmosphere could reduce the amount of ozone over our heads†. But prior to the hole being discovered, the negative effects of the CFC’s were never taken seriously by the majority of the people as they were not convinced on the connection between CFC’s and the depletion of the ozone layer (NRDC). In 1985, a major discovery had brought great alarm to the whole world as it was discovered by Joseph Farman and his colleagues that there was a hole in the ozone layer (Newman [b]). In fact, the severity of the discovered ozone depletion made the English scientist in the Halley Bay station in Antarctica, who discovered the hole, to think that the equipment he used to measure the extent of the hole was broken (NRDC). He sent the equipment back to England to have the equipment repaired but when he tried to measure the depletion again, his initial finding that the ozone layer had been depleted was confirmed (Francois). Another theoretical attempt, which later on was proven to be correct, was the â€Å"recipe of the ozone loss† as summarized by the Centre for Atmospheric Science as follows: †¢ â€Å"The polar winter leads to the formation of the polar vortex which isolates the air within it. †¢ â€Å"Cold temperatures form inside the vortex; cold enough for the formation of Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs). As the vortex air is isolated, the cold temperatures and the PSCs persist. †¢ â€Å"Once the PSCs form, heterogeneous reactions take place and convert the inactive chlorine and bromine reservoirs to more active forms of chlorine and bromine. †¢ â€Å"No ozone loss occurs until sunlight returns to the air inside the polar vortex and allows the production of active chlorine and initiates the catalytic ozone destruction cycles. Ozone loss is rapid. The ozone hole currently covers a geographic region a little bigger than Antarctica and extends nearly 10km in altitude in the lower stratosphere. â€Å" Basically, the preceding enumeration of the â€Å"recipe of the ozone loss† is similar to the Heterogeneous Chemistry Theory that proposed chemical reactions occurring within the ozone layer. This also explains why the hole is over Antarctica and not over the other continents. The atmospheric conditions prevailing in Antarctica, which is its having ultra cold temperature, suits the chemical reactions that take place resulting to ozone depletion. Consequences of Depleted Ozone The most common knowledge as to the adverse effects of the depletion of the ozone layer is that it increases the penetration of the ultraviolet radiation resulting to more skin cancer. As Francois puts it, â€Å"[W]hen this protective layer is reduced, it has dramatic consequences on life† such as slower photosynthesis among plants as increased radiation results to less metabolism; destruction of micro-organisms which play a vital role in the food chain; and, the increase in cases of skin cancer. Basically, the depletion of the ozone layer can result to an enormous change in the ecological balance. It is a universal fact, based on the studies and researches that have been made, that a little tip in the ecological balance could result to a mammoth change in our environment that could adversely affect the way people live. The slight increase in temperature can cause destructive floods to countries surrounded by oceans. In the case of the increase in the ozone hole, it can results to unfavorable changes in our environment starting from the destruction of micro-organisms and the instability that it causes to the metabolism of plants responsible to changes in photosynthesis. These changes may not be visible in the present time, which makes many people complacent and insensitive as to their roles in the protection of the ozone layer, but catastrophic results can be felt in the near future.

Bhakti Yoga

There are four goals in the traditional Hinduism. These four goals cover life viewed as good and life seen as bad. Three of these goals appeal to the positive things in life, such as, Dharma or righteousness, Artha or achievement, and Kama or gratification. The fourth goal which is the Moksha or liberation is aimed at the negative things. The three affirmation goals can all be sought at the same time or one at a time, as each may be appropriate at certain periods in one’s life. Hinduism prescribes four paths towards the Divine destiny.These paths may lead to a good life, oneness with the divine, liberation from life, or the fulfillment of any or all of the four goals. The paths are called Yoga. Yoga is a set of disciplines that must be carried out by followers who wished to take these paths. Yoga is like a yoke or a load around the neck or shoulders which is heavy but necessary to reach the destiny or the realization of goals. The different paths or yoga are, Inana or the way towards the ultimate knowledge, Bhakti or the path to loving or devotion to God, Karma or the way to undo the reaction to deeds in life, and the Raja or the royal path to meditation.The Inana, Bhakti and Karma are contained in Bhagavad-Gita while Raja is in Yoga Sutra. Both the Bhagavad-Gita and the Yoga Sutra are spiritual teachings that help explain the divine world. The Bhakti Yoga is the path to the immaculate devotion to and absolute loving of God. In Sanskrit it means the overpowering, generous and joyful love for God. The follower is focused on God by expressions of love and actions of worship. The devotion is strong and faithful like a lover to the beloved, a parent to his child.The Bhakti-Rasamrita-Sindhu of Rupa Gosvami enumerates the nine forms of the path, which are: chant, praise, reflection, service, prayers, preaching, relationship, and surrender. Keeping them all or even one is enough for a devotee to experience the love of God. The objective of this love and devotio n is to get close to God. Depending on their attitudes, Bhakti is taken differently by its followers. For some, it is the initial step leading to Inana. On the contrary, others believe it to be higher than Inana.Others think all of them are equal. Bhagavad Gita is considered the pillar as well as the foundation of Hindu Bhakti theism particularly in Vaishnavism. It has a long list of religious and philosophical affiliations but is partial to Krishna devotees. According to Krishna love, pure intention and utmost devotion is the most powerful driving force in the spiritual life of a devotee. Most Bhakti movements worship only one God, Vishnu or Shiva. They came after the three Vedanta systems were put in place.These Bhakti movements reinvigorated Hinduism because they filled in the emotional and philosophical void of India. The intensity of expression of Bharatanatyam had the most influence in the great changes in Hindu prayers and rituals since the time of Adi Shankaracharya. There h ad been other noted contributions of Bhakti movements in Indian history. Their schools of Philosophy have changed the beliefs of people. Bhakti taught the people to channel their emotions to the direction of God in the process of self-actualization.The Hindus from the orthodox Brahaminical systems denounced the caste system. Bhakti’s call for tolerance and love were not listened to by those deeply-rooted in the caste structure of society. Bhakti was responsible for the mass production of devotional materials in literature, art, music and dance that has enriched the culture not only of India but also of the entire world. This gave spiritual renewal by giving up insignificant rituals and social demarcation, to India References SanatanSociety. org (2008). Bhakti Yoga. Retrieved June 14, 2008 fromhttp://www. sanatansociety. org/yoga_and_meditation/bhakti_yoga. htm ISKCON Educational Services (2004). The Heart of Hinduism. Introduction to the Four Main Parts. Retrived June 14, 200 8 from http://hinduism. iskcon. com/practice/index. htm Hinduism: Living the Religious Life. Retrieved June 14, 2008 from http://uwacadweb. uwyo. edu/Religionet/er/hinduism/HRLIFE. HTM The Yoga Centre Glasgow (2007). Bhakti Yoga. Yogi Nirmalendu. Kundalini Shakti Page. Retrieved June 14, 2008 from http://www. yoginirmalendu. com/Types_Of_Yoga/Bhakti_Yoga/Bhakti_Yoga. html

A project namely as Bisham came up by Virgin Media Inc Essay

A project namely as Bisham came up by Virgin Media Inc - Essay Example The paper tells that investment appraisal techniques basically work on the basis of incremental cash flows and not on the basis of net income. Incremental cash flows are the additional cash flows that a firm generates by investing in a particular project, thus the cash flows being generated from that project are added to the projected net income of the firm. However, in order to ensure whether a certain project is viable for the firm or not, the decision lies on the overall net cash flows pertaining to that project. The net cash flows of a particular project can be obtained by subtracting the net income of the company without accepting a project, from the net income of the firm with accepting a project. The basic formula for the incremental cash flows of a particular project is: Net cash flows of the project = Net Income of the company with the project - Net Income of the company without the project The reason behind using incremental cash flow approach in investment appraisal techniques is that it clearly states the actual cash outflows and inflows of a particular project. In case, when a firm has more than one projects and the firm has to decide which project needs to be opted, at that time this incremental approach assists the financial managers of the company, as the overall net income of the company might increase with every project, but the incremental cash flow approach clearly distinct between every project and their viability. As a result, the incremental approach is more useful in appraising different projects. ... These difficulties are as follows: Future projection of cash flows is subject to judgment of the financial analysts which vary with person to person. Inflation rate is subject to unpredictability as local economy as well as global economy may perform either way. The decision of operating cash flows are subject to pure judgment as nobody knows about the cost of direct material, future wage rates and above all the factory overheads estimates during the project life. The tax rate may change due to change in government’s policy. The working capital requirements are subject to pure judgments as to how to estimate them and the assumption regarding their reversal in the last year of the project. Net Cash Flows of Project Bisham under current conditions The following are the net cash flows of the project Bisham for 8 years project life. Yrs 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 NCF (1,400,000) 199,700 334,000 317,125 304,469 294,977 287,857 282,518 398,514 In the above table, year 0 indicates the year in which the initial investment is made in the project in the form of purchasing of two machineries naming as Machinery A and B for $1,200,000 and $200,000 respectively. The other figures included in the net cash flows from year 1 to year 8 are derived in such a manner that operating cash flows are computed first. Cost per unit of the product is first calculated by adding up per unit cost of each material, labor and factory overhead. Then these variable costs are deducted from the selling price per unit to obtain the contribution per unit. Contribution per unit for each year is then multiplied by the total number of units to be produced and sold each year to obtain

Marketing Mix Strategy for John Lewis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Marketing Mix Strategy for John Lewis - Essay Example   Objective for John Lewis John Lewis is based upon ownership structure and commercial success that are unique in nature and built upon partnership reputation. Thereby, the overall objectives of the organisation should focus upon partners, customers and profit. Partners should achieve personal satisfaction in being one of the members of a co-owned enterprise, employ and preserve loyal customers through their application of their continuous trust and should make adequate profit to continue commercial vitality with expectation and profit sharing among members (John Lewis, 2011). 1.1. Marketing Objectives Marketing objective will be towards the achievement of overall goals of the business. There are objectives that are related to product. John Lewis needs to launch more product lines either through their own brands or through collaboration with other brands in different parts of the world (Mesure, 2005). Production cost and other costs need to be reduced so that products are affordabl e and competitive pricing is maintained. There are certain merchandises that have gained high sales volumes. Also, many of the merchandises experienced low sales volumes. Strategy needs to be developed to manage the product lines according to own brand and other brands that are associated with high and low margin. 2.0. Environmental Analysis 2.1. Political Environment The government of the UK encourages the retailers to offer mix job opportunities from locally-based, flexible jobs to highly-skilled and higher-paid jobs. This industry is high with regards to staff turnover. However, the model of John Lewis ensures that the employees are loyal to the company. 2.2. Economic Environment Economical factors have the influential power to affect John Lewis and Waitrose in terms of price, profit and cost. Due to financial crisis, there has been increase in the level of unemployment. This tends to affect the demand for goods and services (Adair & Et. Al., 2009). The economic factors are at th e certain point of time, out of control of John Lewis and have its effect on the company’s performance and thus marketing mix can be intense. The slowdown in market will affect John Lewis in non-food category and Waitrose in food category. However, this is not under the control of the company.  

Thinking design from the outside in Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Thinking design from the outside in - Essay Example al attention or techniques that might have added value to the finished result; or perhaps points to the value in terms of discovering or inventing new techniques for further study. Knowledge of the degree of expertise involved in the making of the object also lends a degree of value to the finished product. However, the design must also be understood from within its museum context. This includes consideration of whether the museum is working to highlight a particular characteristic or illustrate a noteworthy period in history or design. To more fully understand what is meant by socio-cultural, economic, technological and museum contexts, this paper will closely examine a decanter created by William Burges in 1865-66 that is currently on display at the Victoria and Albert Museum. In terms of its socio-cultural context, this decanter captures the opulence and elaborate detail of the later Victorian period in which a great deal of the artwork designed represented a return to some of the more ornate Gothic styles of the past. Although speaking of architectural elements, Brett Ketter’s definition of the Victorian Gothic is equally applicable to this piece: â€Å"The characteristic feature of Victorian Gothic is its polychromy, in which materials of different colors and textures are used to create decorative bands †¦ different materials are used as well† (2001). In its use of several varieties of metals and glassware to present differing colors and textures as well as the use of gemstones and other materials to provide decorative elements, this decanter certainly typifies this definition sufficiently to reflect this culture. Further, the illustrative details of the piece, including the Greek and Roman coins and Roman font-style used in the engr aving throughout the piece denote the deep connection to England’s past. â€Å"Burges looked to the arts of China, Assyria, ancient Greece and Rome, and medieval Europe as inspiration for the design† (Eatwell, 1997, p.

Tea Culture between Asian and Western Countries Essay

Tea Culture between Asian and Western Countries - Essay Example British afternoon tea was the most popular during ceremonies. Anna the Duchess of Bedford was the inventor of the afternoon teas. At the time it was only the wealthy individuals who could manage to buy tea. The wealthy individuals could then invite their friends so as to celebrate the festivities. The tea was later stored in the Chinese porcelain and served with other delicate goodies like sandwiches, cakes, scones, tarts, cream, biscuits and bread. Tea from India was stored in silver tea-pots which was later poured into bone-china cups. This was symbolic in terms of the economic wealth of an individual. The Britons also had the high tea which was taken during dinner time and tea breaks which was normally during mornings as part of their strict customs. In all the occasions, the European took tea when celebrating with friends and families.In Chinese, the tea was taken in a special environment. During the large parties and the imperial tea festivities, it usually involved many partici pants.

Spyware in the Enterprise Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Spyware in the Enterprise - Essay Example It first appeared in the late nineties, although the name spyware is attributed to Zone Labs founder Gregor Freund who is suspected to have introduced it in 2000 (Wikipedia 2007). In referring to the present state of spyware, Gartner computer analyst John Pescatore reported "It's rapidly turning into a very serious problem. Last year, it was mostly annoying with all the pop-ups, but now it's leaving behind more serious problems," (Mark 2004). This report gives a detailed overview of the problems, and the various solutions currently available for combating spyware at the enterprise level. Multi-level preventive measures are essential in resolving the issues caused by spyware as they can considerably impact the its affect on the overall productivity of an organization. At this point, it is virtually impossible to fully eliminate the problem off a network, but there are several methods to control its influence at a level that minimizes its effect on the integrity of company networks and resources. Spyware has progressively become a serious technological concern for most enterprises which must rely on internetworking for business. According to a recent report it is the second largest network related security issue in enterprises (Sophos 2007). Commonly spyware is referenced as a combination of adware (ads, pop-ups) and application level data mining software. It is heavily financed by advertisers as a marketing approach to retrieve time-critical and sensitive information on the habits of online users. These financial backers in turn obtain relevant information to better target their advertising in part, or to resell the obtained data to the adequate parties, such as market research companies and the like. When it comes to the enterprise, the information targeted can be highly confidential as it is with our organization. After reading this report, the average employee is expected to be familiar with the meaning of spyware and related terms, the risks it entails, and some simple methods and practices to combat it on the enterprise network. How do we address the issue of spyware What are the various steps that can be implemented as an organization to reduce the risk presented by it Is installing an Anti-virus a sufficient strategy What could be the consequences of confidential data loss In this segment, we answer these questions as we offer a tour of spyware and its relevance as a security hazard in the workforce. Unlike other items, this issue concerns us all as we each share an internet connection at work; and thus are likely to have been infected by some form of spyware already. The problem and its impact on enterprise According to the National Cyber Security Alliance in the United States, about 90% of US PCs were reported to have some sort of spyware on them (NCSA 2005). This staggering number in the US alone gives an idea of the size of the problem. Even though, we do not have an estimate of the percentage of the Australian PCs infected, we are estimating it is comparable in percentage based on government research (Australian Government 2005). The problem is widespread because spyware passes through standard layers of security easier than most of us are prepared for. Spyware mostly infects a computer or laptop through its browser; an application we all use to access information on the

The ebonics Dialect Paper Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The ebonics Dialect - Research Paper Example language has a natural growth trajectory is wrong, but that rather, the way language grows is controlled by humans as opposed to language growing on its own. As Wilson (89) says, the way people attach certain meanings to various words and phrases is what gives language meaning. Orwell is likely to have a different view of the usage of the N word from Wallace. First, it is important to understand that the N word has evolved over the last few decades. From the derogatory word Negro, the ebonic word Nigga has been derived, especially among the African American community. Unlike the derogatory nature of the word from which the Nigga is used, the word Nigga is used as a word of respect in among the African American community. Orwell would agree with this kind of language shift and may be appreciate the fact that this kind of development is necessary for the growth of language. However, a person like Wallace would have reservation against the use of this word and see this as a negative change from the requirements of language. Wallace admits to being a language nerd, the kind who looks to make sure that every rule has been observed. In this regard, he would most likely object to the N word, either in the form of Nigga, or Negro. This is because the word Nigga could be seen by a grammar expert as an informal word while Negro is seen as offensive and derogatory (Ernest 145). As a result, for a person like Wallace, he would probably have a problem with the use of this world. Orwell on the other hand seems to have a different view of the rules of language. He argues that the way people modify language leads to the way language plays out in politics, and then the political affects the way people modify language. In this regard, he is most likely to appreciate the fact that language grows in such ways that maintain archaic rules of grammar may neither be necessary nor feasible. As an English teacher, Curzan talks about teaching grammar and grammar rules. She starts her

Law of contract- Exclusion causes and privity Case Study

Law of contract- Exclusion causes and privity - Case Study Example Failure to meet such obligations, they will be liable for any damage. Such liability is strictly for the parties involved in a contract in exclusion to any third parties. The privity doctrine therefore stipulates that only the parties in a given contract can sue or be sued regarding the contract. This gives two different principles that can be derived from the doctrine. One is that any person or entity who is not a party in the contract does not have rights to enforce the contract and also that such a person is not bound by a contract in which he is not a party. It confers no rights or obligations to any except those engaged in a contract through agreement (Treitel, 1995). Economic development and growth in international trade has led to globalization in trade and given rise to legal conventions. In most business contracts most single contractors make arrangement with third parties who benefit from such contracts the growth of such contracts has increased calling for law reforms in many countries. With the growth of economies, the doctrine of privity, which prohibits conferment of contracts benefit to third parties raises a number of complexity to contracts which are made with the intention to benefit a third party. It frustrates such contracting parties while a third party who may have arranged with the contracting party in a contract suffers losses and ends up inconvenienced. In the case of the contract in question there are two parties in the contract, namely; Ace Steamers Ltd and Beth. In this contract, Beth entered into a contract with AC Steamers Ltd and bought two tickets, one for her daughter Carol and one for herself. Applying the doctrine of privity in this case, though Carol is bought for the ticket, she is not a party in the given contract and can not sue AC Steamers Ltd for any breach. She is also not liable for any damage that may be done by Beth. In this case we realize that Beth's intention was to benefit Carol and we clearly see some of the difficulties raised by the doctrine of privity. The case of Dunlop Pneumatic tyre Co Ltd versus Selfridge and Company is a classic example where Dunlop Pneumatic tires Co Ltd sold tyres to Selfridge and Co Ltd on condition that they would sell the tires below the greed price. Selfridge went on and sold to a third party based on the same conditions but the third party went on and sold the tyres below the price agreed and Dunlop Pneumatic sued them for a breach and the case was ruled that there was no contract between the third buyer and Dunlop Pneumatic Co Ltd. In the case in question Carol has no right of action against the Ac Steamers Co Ltd. However Beth being a party in the contract can sue for damages that herself has incurred. There are a few exceptions to the doctrine of privity which comprise means of circumventing the doctrine of privity. Under insurance contracts the doctrine of privity excepted in insurance policies for the advantage of third parties such that a policy is effected by the assured for his life, and also expressed as benefit of his dependants such that she can sue in the particular insurance company as long as it's assigned in writing. The doctrine of privity also faces exception in matters of family development and marriage settlements, where a contract is an arrangement on marriage

Research Paper - Real Estate Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

- Real Estate - Research Paper Example The type of information to be considered includes location, medium of transport, etc. Sources of risks include radon emissions, surface water, soil, and air. The perception of risk is affected by five critical cycles. The health risk cycle involves publication of the initial study which links specific environmental contaminants with a given health effect. The remediation cycle involves seeking information on how to remediate or reduce the risk. Thirdly, public relations cycle involves publishing the risk effects in popular press. The regulatory stage involves lawmakers and regulators responding to public concerns about the environmental risks. Lastly, the lending cycle ends with the lending community reacting to the environmental risk. Environmental assessment has also been enhanced since 1986. Lenders can gather information about environmental conditions that may affect mortgage loan security. Inclusion of property in federal superfund regulations impacts on the value of property. S ignificant market stigma may be caused by such regulations. Contamination such as contaminated aquifer may affect current use by limiting the best and highest use of the property. Contamination also affects the surrounding uses e.g. property close to a landfill may be affected by landfill risk. In the real world, environmental conservationists and governments use the information to locate potential environmental hazards such as landfills near properties of low value. The responsible regulators and government institutions also use the impacts to create an enabling environment where the best and highest current uses of land can be achieved by minimizing

Foundational Accounting Principles and Terminology Essay Example for Free

Foundational Accounting Principles and Terminology Essay We all know how important the accounting aspect of any business/organization is. It is basically the most important way to manage finances. Without proper accounting for all expenses and finances, a company and/or organization will definitely have a hard time being financially stable. In this paper we will discuss some foundational accounting principles and terminology that are basic but quite essential to the accounting practice. Now let’s discuss some accounting terms beginning with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles. Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) is a codification of how CPA firms and corporations prepare and present their business income and expense, assets and liabilities on their financial statements. GAAP is not a single accounting rule, but rather the aggregate of many rules on how to account for various transactions. GAAP are more like accounting standards (Wikipedia, 2009). Next we have Contra-Asset Accounts, which is defined as an account which offsets another account. A contra-asset account has a credit balance and offsets the debit balance of the corresponding asset. A contra-liability account has a debit balance and offsets the credit balance of the corresponding liability (InvestorWords, 2009). Let us move on to Historical Cost, which is a measure of value used in accounting in which the price of an asset on the balance sheet is based on its nominal or original cost when acquired by the company. The historical-cost method is used for assets in the U. S. under generally accepted accounting principles (Investopedia, 2009). Okay, now there is the Accrual Basis vs. Cash Bonus Accounting. This is the difference between the two. In Accrual basis accounting, income is reported in the fiscal period it is earned, regardless of when it is received, and expenses are deducted in the fiscal period they are incurred, whether they are paid or not. Basically, you record both revenues and expenses when they occur. In cash basis accounting, revenues are recorded when cash is actually received and expenses are recorded when they are actually paid (Ward, 2009). Last but not least, there is the Accounting Standards Codification. Accounting Standards Codification (ASC) is a major restructuring of accounting and reporting standards designed to simplify user access to all authoritative U. S. generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) by providing the authoritative literature in a topically organized structure. ASC disassembled and reassembled thousands of nongovernmental accounting pronouncements (including those of FASB, the Emerging Issues Task Force [EITF], and the AICPA) to organize them under approximately 90 topics. The ASC are those that oversee that all accounting and reporting standards are adhered to (Wikipedia, 2009). It is now time to move on to discuss and describe three sets of financial statements that are part of financial statements of companies /organizations. The three sets of financial statements we will be describing are The Balance Sheet, The Income Statement and The Statement of Cash Flows. The balance sheet also known as the â€Å"Statement of financial position† reveals a company’s assets, liabilities and equity (net worth). The balance sheet is divided into two parts that must equal each other, or balance each other out. The formula of the balance sheet is: Assets= Liabilities + Shareholder’s Equity. What this formula means is that assets, or the means used to operate the company, are balanced by a company’s obligations along with equity investment brought into the company and its retained earnings (Investopedia, 2009). Next we have the income statement, which measures a company’s financial performance over a specific accounting period. The financial performance is assessed by giving a summary of how the business incurs its revenues and expenses. It also shows the net profit or loss incurred over a specific accounting period, which is typically over fiscal quarter or year (Investopedia, 2009). Moving on to the last one, which is the cash flow statement. The cash flow statement allows investors to understand how a company’s operations are running, where its money is coming from, and how it is being spent. The cash flow statement is also a mandatory part of a company’s financial report, and has been so since 1987 (Investopedia, 2009). Now I will describe which is more useful, Net Income or Cash from Operating Activities? I believe that Cash from Operating Activities is more useful to companies because they can generate cash in several different ways. Three different ways to be exact, they are cash flows from operating activities, from investing activities, and financing activities. Cash from Operating Activities, in my opinion is the most useful because it paints the best picture of how well a company’s business operations are producing cash. After looking over the annual financial reports for Samsung, RTL Group and Lockheed Martin, I make the prediction that each company will continue to improve its net income as well as see a significant spike in their cash flow. As far as relevant information in regards to conglomerates, such as the IDOLS segment of the Fremantle Media North America, I was not totally sure how to get this information but I eventually continued to read the investor portion on the RTL Group website where I found out more information. All in all, I learned some new definitions when it comes to accounting and decision making. I thought this assignment was intense due to a lot of reading and research, but I believe I got through it well. I look forward to learning more about how accounting and decision making come together. References http://www.investopedia.com/articles/04/033104.asp http://www.investopedia.com/articles/04/031004.asp http://www.investopedia.com/terms/i/incomestatement.asp http://www.investorwords.com/5476/contra_account.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generally_Accepted_Accounting_Principles

A More Perfect Union Speech | Barack Obama

A More Perfect Union Speech | Barack Obama The speech titled A More Perfect Union was delivered by Senator Barack Obama on March 18, 2008 at the National Constitution Centerin Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The speech responds to the video of Barack Obamas pastor, reverend Jeremiah Wright, in which Wright denounced the United States and accused the government of crimes against people of colour. The pundits and various news media outlets played the clip repeatedly on the television and YouTube. First, the Obamas speech attempts to address the nation on their concerns of his affiliation with Reverend Wright. Second, the speech addresses the sustaining and prevailing issues of race within America and how it paralyses our nation. The speech is compelling because it possesses the necessary elements of effective and persuasive rhetoric; in summation, Obamas rhetoric works. Rhetoric is the study of opposing arguments, misunderstanding, and miscommunication. By addressing the misunderstanding and miscommunication connected to and perpetrated by racism in America, the audience sees precisely how effective Obamas speech is when examined through such lenses as the classical and 20th century rhetorical theories and concepts from Aristotle, Richard Weaver, Stephen Toulmin, Chaim Perelman, and Michel Foucault. Barack Obamas speech echoes the rhetorical concepts of ethos, pathos, and logos that explicitly discussed within Aristotles The Rhetoric. Ethos is how the speakers character and authenticity aids his or her influence of the audience; whereas pathos is a rhetorical device that alters the audiences perceptions through storytelling and emotional appeals (181). Logos uses reason to construct an argument and to covey an idea (182). Finally, kairos attempts to conceptualize the need for the correct timing (201). Therefore, ethos, pathos, logos, and kairos are within the speech and expressed in various ways, striking language and repetition, and through different receptors, emotions and sense. Ethos is accomplished on intellectual, spiritual, and biological levels. Obama does this by giving factual information. He interjects historical references; he explains the extent of his family tree. Thus, Obama gives creditability to his speech and validity to his message. He acknowledges that the press routinely looks for the latest evidence of racial polarization, not just in terms of white and black, but black and brown as well (Obama, par. 7). From this quote, the audience is being persuaded by the theoretical concepts of opposing arguments. The audience is fully aware of the partition between the races, and the speech is very effective due to the fact that Barack Obama is willing to speak of what is often unspoken. When addressing his intellectual ethos, Obama mentions that he has gone to some of the best schools in America (Obama, par. 6). Secondly, he recites, We the people, in order to form a more perfect union, which is easily recognized as the first line in the U.S. Constitution (Obama, par. 2). Even those who do not possess complete knowledge of the famous line immediately understand that something of importance is being conveyed to them. Thirdly, he demonstrates his awareness of past occurrences and present concerns on the global scale. Senator Obama recalls the legacy of slavery and Jim Crow within our nation (Obama, par. 24). He acknowledges the present dangers of conflicts in the Middle East and explains the cause of such conflict (Obama, par. 10). The audience is given evidence that he understands the role of history as well as the present-day global concerns affecting our nation. Furthermore, Senator Obama uses ethos to gain credibility with his knowledge of social issues that pervade our society today. He states, The most segregated hour of American life occurs on Sunday morning (Obama, par. 12). He acknowledges that the resentments of the black and white communities arent always expressed in polite company, but these resentments are manifested within our society in destructive ways, like racism (Obama, par. 31). The audience feels that he is knowledgeable and credible on the immediate topics affecting our future and our daily lives. Ethos is also applied on a spiritual level by mentioning his present faith and making Biblical references. He states that more than twenty years ago [he was] introduce[d] à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦to Christian faith [with] obligations to love one another, to care for the sick and lift up the poor (Obama, par. 13). He noted how black people merged with the stories of David and Goliath, Moses and Pharaoh, the Christians in the lions den, [and] Ezekiels field of dry bones (Obama, par. 16). Senator Obama is altering the language. Christians did not exist in the Old Testament story of Ezekiel, but Senator Obama is effectively connecting with every major religion. Simultaneously, he is reaching out to the secular world as well. Being cognizant that everyone does not actively practice a religious faith, Obama chooses stories that everyone, Christians and non-Christians, could identify and recognize. Thus, these religious references connect with masses as well as members of the three major religions. Finally, Senator Obama gains ethos by explaining his own genetic makeup. He states that he is the son of a black man from Kenya and a white woman from Kansasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [He continues that he] is married to a Black American who carries within her the blood of slaves and slave ownersà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [Then, he acknowledges that he has] brothers, sisters, nieces, nephews, uncles and cousins of every race and every hue scattered across three continents (Obama, par. 6). In essence, he reveals that he has the blood of Africa, the birthplace of humanity, and the blood of a woman of French descent within him. He has married a woman who has both slave and slave owner flowing within her. Moreover, he has fathered children who have the blood of humanity: African, European, slave, and the Caucasian slave owner within them. Thus, he is an authority on race. He states, [his] story [is] seared into [his] genetic makeup the idea that this nation is more that the sum of its partsthat out of many, we are truly one (Obama, par. 6). The audience revels at his remarkable story, and ethos is achieved through storytelling. In essence, Obama forges a biological connection with his audience. The connection is strengthened through Senator Obamas use of pathos. It is achieved through the use of emotional appeals. He alters the thoughts and feelings of his audience through storytelling, imagery, and allusion. The topic of race, within itself, evokes strong emotions, even to this very moment, this very second. The senator begins by telling a story of his grandfather who survived a Depression to serve in Pattons army during World War II (Obama, par. 6). The use of key terms such as Depression, Pattons army, and World War II evoke the emotional responses of patriotism and self-sacrifice. Toward the end of his speech, Obama shares another story; he tells of a young, white, Southern campaignerAshley Baiawho inspires an old, black, Southern man to vote (Obama, par. 45-46). In essence, Baia encourages pathos by telling her story. Barack Obama uses Baias story of inspiration to highlight the power in sharing his own story. The audience is able to connect through the emotional appeals that take place at the very core of humanity. It is easy to disrespect and dishonour something that is foreign and unknown, but it is hard to turn away from the essence of another mans soul. As fellow humans, the audience recognizes the sheer humanity in the story. Pathos is also achieved through the use of allusion and imagery. The imagery that is provoked with terms such as slave or slavery is still poignant today. Most people are cognizant of the plight of slaves within this country. The audience would be aware of the racism that ensued and the devastation and isolation that slavery caused in American history. When Barack Obama describes the various ways that racism manifested within our society, pathos is achieved because of the powerful imagery of the allusions to race and racial conflicts within our community. The audience is trapped and becomes aware of the prejudices and experiences of race and racism within their own lives, thus causing emotions to surge and overflow. Pathos, being the weakest form of rhetoric, is utilized by Senator Obama sparingly. Instead, he overwhelmingly utilizes the most powerful form of rhetoric, logos. Logos is the ability to embody rational, logical, methodical thoughts and persuasions. As it relates to Obamas speech, examples of logos are found throughout the text. For example, by displaying objectivity, the element of logos is achieved. Senator Barack Obama methodically explains the problems with race within America, and he gives logical, reasoned resolutions to the problems. He explains, The anger [of Blacks and] the memories of humiliation and doubt and fear have not gone away, nor has the anger and bitterness of those yearsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [Later he offers resolution and states that] the African-American community [must embrace] our past without becoming victims of our past (Obama, par. 34). Many African-Americans will identify with Obamas assessment of race within the African-American community, and they will be inspired to act in a positive manner. Simultaneously, he acknowledges a similar anger within the white community. They [feel] theyve worked hard all their livesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦They are anxious about their future, and they feel their dreams slipping away [and] resentment builds over timeà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [Furthermore, he offers resolution and urges that] the white community [must acknowledge] that what ails the African-American community does not just exist in the minds of black people; that the legacy of discrimination [exists] (Obama, par. 36). From these lines, the audience is persuaded to respond in a positive manner as well, and they are urged to approach the subject of racism both subjectively and objectively. Senator Obama recognizes the duality of both plights and asks the American people not to blame each other but investigate and seek out the true reason of conflict within our nation. Thus, Obama is using inductive and deductive reasoning, which is indicative of logos. By utilizing Aristotles method and system, Obamas appeals to logic are beyond reproach. Once his reasons are defined, he states that this is the time that we must take action and secure our future together, and Obama begins to preach on the importance of time. The issue of time and timing directly correlates with the classical rhetorical term kairos. Obama conveys time in a powerful fashion. In the beginning of his speech, he states, Two hundred and twenty one years ago [our forefathers]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦produced [a document that was] eventually signed, but ultimately unfinished. It was stained by the nations original sin of slavery [that] brought the convention to a stalemate until the founders chose to allow the slave trade to continue for at least 20 more years, and leave any final resolution to future generations (Obama, par. 3). Later, he explains how people often manipulate race to win political elections and prevent unity. Barack Obama speaks of the continual war between segments of our community. Then he states, But race is an issue that I believe this nation cannot afford to ignore right now (Obama, par. 23). Furthermore, he acknowledges the complexities of race in America have never been resolved. He urges Americans to come together and solve [the] challenges [in America] (Obama, par. 33). He persuades the audience to racial relations within America a priority. In summary, kairos is aggressively addressed and highlighted. The audience realizes that the problem at hand may have been ignored by our forefathers, but these problems must be addressed now. Toward the end, kairos reaches its peak of effectiveness. Obama states that what has been effectively dividing the races in the past will not happen again: Not this time. This time we want to talk about crumbling schoolsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time we want to reject the cynicismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time we want to talk about [healthcare]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time we want to talk about [jobs]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time we want to talk about [race]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time-This time we want to talk about the men and women of every colour and creed who serve together, and fight together, and bleed together under the same proud flag (Obama, par. 40-41). From these lines, the audience feels the urgency of time; the listeners realize that this time America must act. Obama effectually uses the sophistic rhetorical theories and concepts to ignite and unite the audience; however, he also incorporates modern-day rhetorical theories and concepts as well. Specifically, Senator Obama utilizes the hierarchy of definition, analogy, cause and effect, and testimony of the 20th century rhetorician, Richard Weaver. In the introduction of Language Is Sermonic, the narrator summates Weaver as stating, Rhetoricà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦is a positive act with consequences in the worldà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Every utterance is an attempt to make others see the world in a particular way and accept the values implicit in that point of view (1348). Similarly, Obama desires to persuade the audience to see the world from a different perspective, a different lens. First, toward the beginning of the text, Obama defines the Black church. He states, Black churches across the country embody the community in its entirety-the doctor and the welfare mom, the model student and the former gang-bangerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Services are full of raucous laughter and sometimes bawdy humour Full of kindness and cruelty, the fierce intelligence and the shocking ignorance, the struggles and successes, the love [as well as] the bitterness and biases (Obama, par. 18). If one really looks closely at the definition, it is also a definition of America as well as the Black church. By explaining the polarity within the Black church, he explains the polarity within America as a whole. In this way, Obama uses rhetoric in a positive way to impact his audience and highlights that every utterance is an attempt to make others see the world in a particular way [through definition]. Second, Weaver asserts, Rhetoric [is] the most important of all ends, the persuading of human beings to adopt right attitudes and act in response to them (1351). From these lines, one can examine Senator Obamas use of twentieth century rhetorical theories and concepts. Obama uses cause-and-effect by illustrating the history of racism within the United States (1354). He states: We do not need to recite here the history of racial injustice in this country. But we do need to remind ourselves that so many of the disparities that existed between the African-American community and the larger American community today can be traced directly to inequalities passed from an earlier generation that suffered under the brutal legacy of slavery and Jim Crow (Obama, par. 24). In essence, Obama is stating that the racism today has a sordid past in our history; it can not be ignored, but it must be confronted, discussed, and acted upon. Obama is using this cause-and-effect to play on the emotions of his audience. Everyone is aware of the gruesome history, yet, as Weaver puts it, Humanity includes emotionality or the capacity to feel and suffer, to know pleasure (1352). From these lines, it is obvious that Senator Obama uses cause-and-effect to evoke an emotional response and sway the audience to his point of view. Furthermore, Barack Obama utilizes the elements outlined by Stephen Toulmins The Uses of Argument. He uses the schema of the six components in analysing arguments: qualifier, claim, data, warrant, backing, and rebuttal. The qualifier is the word or phrase [that] expresses the speakers degree of force or certainty concerning the claim (1418). Next, the claim is the conclusion whose merit must be established (1417). Then, the data is the fact we appeal to as a foundation for the claim (1417). The warrant is the statement authorizing our movement from the data to the claim (1419). The backing is the credential designed to certify the statement expressed in the warrant; backing must be introduced when the warrant itself is not convincing enough to the readers or the listeners (1420). Finally, the rebuttal is the statement recognizing the restrictions to which the claim may legitimately be applied (1421). The following examples show how Obamas speech utilizes these principles as well: First, by working together, we can move beyond some (qualifier) of our old racial wounds (claim) by virtue of asserting a firm conviction, a conviction rooted in my faith in God and my faith in the American people (data), because we have no choice if we are to continue on a path of a more perfect union (warrant), as we know its a racial stalemate weve been struck in for years (backing)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Second, the vast majority (qualifier) of Americans want the issue of race to be resolved (claim) by virtue of the desire to perfect our society by young people whose attitudes and beliefs and openness to change have already made history in this election (data), because there is hope in the next generation (warrant)à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦(Obama, par. 33, 42) Similarly, as a rhetoric, Obama uses Chaim Perelmans techniques to connect to his audience. Perelmans The Realm of Rhetoric states, The importance of rhetoric, of the psychological technique which acts upon the hearers will in order to obtain his adherenceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦[B]y showing that for any subject there are two opposing discoursesà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the existences of one single truth [is denied] (1379). From these lines, the audience can assume that Senator Obama verbalizes the plight of black, white, and brown Americans. He dismisses a single truth, and Obama accepts multiple truths within a society. He promotes inclusion and commonality among all people despite socio-economics or race, and Obama encourages them to look at both sides of the argument. Thus, he uses psychological techniques in order to connect with his audience. Similar to Aristotles rhetorical concept of kairos, in Chaim Perelmans The New Rhetoric: A Theory of Practical Reasoning he states, Political speakingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦urges us either to do or not to do something (1387). Not this time. This time we want to talk about crumbling schoolsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time we want to reject the cynicismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time we want to talk about [healthcare]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time we want to talk about [jobs]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time we want to talk about [race]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦This time-This time we want to talk about the men and women of every colour and creed who serve together, and fight together, and bleed together under the same proud flag (Obama, par. 40-41). From these lines, Obama is calling for action. He is urging the audience to respond and respond now. Using anaphora, the importance of acting now is echoed over and over again. It provokes emotion, pathos. He is promoting social cohesion in his audience. Furthermore, Perelman states, Things present, things near to us in space and time, act directly on our sensibility (1395). Obamas speech parallels this concept. Obama begins by making allusions to Americas historic past: Two hundred and twenty one years ago [our forefathers]à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦in a hall that still stands across the streetà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦produced [a document that was] eventually signed, but ultimately unfinished. It was stained by the nations original sin of slavery [that] brought the convention to a stalemate until the founders chose to allow the slave trade to continue for at least 20 more years, and leave any final resolution to future generations (Obama, par. 23). From this quote, Obama even reflects the idea of time, past and present, in the very location in which the speech is given. He is connecting the past to the present. This quote highlights the importance of the location of Obamas speech on race, and how the event at the location has made the present setting possible. Finally, Michel Foucaults The Order of Discourse can easily be applied to Senator Barack Obamas speech on race in America; the political speech delivered in March 2008 concerned the taboo subjects of racism and how racism affected our religious rhetoric. According to the text, Foucault remarks, The desire to locate truth in something other than discourse itself hasà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦spawned several mistaken beliefsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ [Foucault questions] the will to truth [and attempts to] restore to discourse its character as an event (1432). Likewise Obama seeks to locate truth in his own experiences and through the invitation of discourse with the audience. Senator Obama discusses the discourse of race in America in a reasonable and logical manner, yet he also seems sincere, full of character, and an expert on the topic. Toward the beginning of The Order of Discourse, Foucault states, I should not like to have to enter this risky order of discourse (1460). Obamas speech is a risky order of discourse. Racism in America is, in many ways, ingrained and embedded within the culture. There are deep wounds that accompany a deeply wounded history. Foucault remarks, In a society like oursà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦We know quite well that we do not have the right to say everything, that we cannot speak of just anything in any circumstances whatever, and that not everyone has the right to speak of anything (1461). Foucaults statement sums up Senator Obamas dilemma. His pastor has spoken words that should not have been uttered-publically at least. Obama states, Weve heard my former pastor, Jeremiah Wright, use incendiary language to express views that have the potential not only to widen the racial divide, but views that denigrate both the greatness and the goodness of our nation and that rightly offend white and black alike (Obama, par. 8). In our society, it is simply not acceptable to transmit racism in a public and formal manner. Racism exists, but it is most often in the subtleties and comforts of familiar spaces and private homes. Thus, Obamas willingness to have an honest conversation on the taboo subject of racism in America is a risky order of discourse. To reiterate, the speech delivered by Barack Obama in March 2008 exemplifies effective rhetorical theories and concepts. Obama hopes to heal Americas turbulent racial legacy and move forward, from the negativity of the past, in a positive, logical manner through ethos, pathos, and logos appeals. First, Senator Obama argues against the long standing racial climate that exists within American society. Second, he broaches subjects that are often discussed in the private sphere but rarely discussed openly. Third, he wants the audience to know that he is an articulate, vibrant, and diverse African-American man who is capable of leading this country forward. Finally, he uses rhetoric to calm the misunderstanding of his personage and his controversial affiliation. In essence, he uses many elements that are exemplified in the classical and modern-day study of rhetoric, blends and expands new rhetorical devices in order to elevate the message, and effectively reaches a broad audience composed of multiple ethnic groups, multiple religions, and multiple socio-economic divisions. Through the rhetoric of language in the speech, Senator Obama proposes to have an honest conversation on race and unite the historical racial divide. In summary, the speech effectively connects to the audience through the multi-media of rhetoric.